Stability, Change, and Complexity in Later-Life Families

J. Jill Suitor , ... Karl Pillemer , in Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences (Eighth Edition), 2016

Value Similarity

Consequent with archetype theories of homophily ( Homans, 1950; Lazarsfeld & Merton, 1954), value similarity is an important predictor of relationship quality betwixt parents and adult children. In fact, it has been found to be among the strongest and nearly consistent predictors of a wide range of dimensions of parent–adult child relations, including closeness, conflict, ambivalence, and preferences for confiding and caregiving (Pillemer et al., 2007, 2012; Rossi & Rossi, 1990; Suitor et al., 2013a; Suitor & Pillemer, 2006). Farther, longitudinal inquiry on changes in parental differentiation in the later years has demonstrated that value similarity is the best predictor of which offspring remain the most close to their mothers across time, every bit well as which offspring get most close over time (Suitor et al., 2013a). It is not surprising that homophily of values is of such importance to the parent–child tie – theories of child evolution propose that a master goal of parental socialization is imbuing the values that mothers and fathers believe are necessary to be a "good adult" (Grusec, 2002). Considering parents typically endeavor to socialize their children to hold the values that they hold themselves, closeness would be expected to be greater among dyads in which there is high value consensus.

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Case studies in socio-spatial change

Jamie O'Brien , in Shaping Knowledge, 2014

Dilemmas and homophily

Our worked examples show various means in which dilemma and homophily play out at micro-, meso- and exo-levels. Nosotros noted that the potential dilemma to adopt a novel sanitation system in a slum may result from its functional availability and level of admission. Dilemma in this regard stems from trade-offs in participating in a network that includes the foci of physical facilities, technical services and the people that provide those services.

The awarding of a Prisoner's Dilemma or Stag Hunt game could take many forms with regard to the adoption of a sanitation system. In that location is an initial dilemma for the innovator as the facility itself might not be adopted by its intended participants. Sanitation systems are often entrepreneurial concerns and, as a business organization model is required, the well-known 'innovator'south dilemma' (Christensen, 1997) oftentimes applies to enterprises in poor areas. Adoption might suffer due to the inappropriateness of the design, especially where a network of service providers must keep the flow of waste and maintenance in check. Or the price of the facility might be likewise expensive for a critical mass of the intended participants, carrying the risk that the toilet becomes under-used and the services non maintained (see Effigy half-dozen.8). Where the deterioration of fabric has occurred, the slum dweller must make up one's mind whether to persist in usage or revert to insanitary means of disposal. Note that the 'flying toilet' pick of waste disposal – thrown from windows in plastic bags – does mean that women do not need to leave their homes at nighttime, fugitive the risk of sexual harassment or assail. Hence this dilemma is not hypothetical and the adoption of sanitary facilities is non necessarily a given. A further dilemma can occur where prices are high; nosotros noted that the difference of 1 or 2 per cent in the ratio of toilet price to daily earnings can mean that the facility becomes too expensive for many.

Figure vi.8. Games of socio-spatial complexity

The principle of homophily in the adoption of a sanitation arrangement might relate to the broader relationship between slum dwellers and formal city dwellers. Slums are highly diverse sites of mobility, in which dwellers' interactions with the city can atomic number 82 to economic and social advancement. Hence the boundary between slum and metropolis can exist blurred and demarcated more than by perceptions among city dwellers of insanitary or dilapidated conditions. Homophily may be modelled based on those aiming to leave the slum through economic and social advancement, and those city dwellers who live close to its periphery, or are themselves as poor every bit slum dwellers but living precariously in the formal city. Every bit each seeks to assert their identity forth spatial grounds, so the segregation among slum and city dwellers gains greater contrast in the broader landscape (following our example of racial segregation to a higher place). Community festivals that celebrate the sanitation system tin mitigate this segregation as city dwellers are made aware of the improved hygiene and robustness of primal facilities in the slum.

The principle of the innovator'due south dilemma too applies to technological support for the intendance of chronic affliction. The claiming to the innovator, as well as to the participant, might stem from inconsistencies in platform configurations amongst the population, so that it is non possible for the clinical director to detect remotely patients' behaviours with accuracy and confidence. Interfaces might not be suitable to all participants, resulting in express usage or even abandonment of the engineering science. The dilemma for both clinical manager and patient is that adoption of the remote management system depends on the highest level of functionality, involving multiple combinations of the platform devices gear up to the highest sensitivity and resolution. Where platform configuration is used sub-optimally, involving just a express range of devices set to the lowest resolution, this might result in a degraded service for all participants as the manager is forced to select only the platform device that seems to work tolerably well much of the time.

Homophily in this kind of chronic illness care might exist modelled confronting the self-identification of service users. One tendency in mobile platform use is the building and sharing of knowledge among communities. Mobile-platform services might promote the advertisement hoc social arrangement of people experiencing the mutual effects of neurological disability, including disorientation and fatigue. Specific locations that are quiet, with benches and toilets, could get frequented past those requiring rest and reorientation. In highly populous urban areas, particular zones of the city become associated with specific groups at specific times of the day equally emergent properties of complex interactions. A kind of segregation occurs as people come up to associate with those virtually like them as an consequence of shared interests, requirements and daily schedules. Mobile platforms could serve to reinforce this as distributed communities self-organize with increasing intensity their complex, socio-spatial activities.

At the exo-level of Arctic urbanization, dilemmas occur among those seeking to exploit all way of opportunities in a destabilized natural, social and economic landscape. For many, the rewards of Chill urbanization might exist high but and so, too, would be the risks. The rush of industrialists, traders and workers into the region could create bottlenecks, both for commerce and for essential services. Enterprises could start upwardly and fold inside a year due to intensive competition, leaving workers to struggle individually for alternative employment. The dilemma for many would exist over which enterprise to work for: the company only starting up with plenty of new jobs to offer or the firm amend established with greater contest over vacancies? Trade-offs may relate to a worker's personal circumstances. For instance, younger workers with no dependents may seek out beginning-up enterprises, which so suffer in concern due to the express experience and loftier turnover of its workers, just to fold within a few months of starting.

Homophily might occur in these circumstances due to disparate expectations and quality of life among unskilled and skilled workers. The pace of urban and economic change in this region could bring near slum settlements at the fringes of major ports. Workers in the Chill could travel from just about any office of the world, populating seaports in highly diverse communities. Socio-spatial segregation might also occur under similar sets of dynamics to those of race and class, including betwixt the region'due south slum and urban center dwellers.

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Peer Influence

T.F. Piehler , in Encyclopedia of Adolescence, 2011

Homophily

The idea that individuals tend to be similar to their associates is known as homophily. This concept, summarized by the adage 'birds of a feather flock together', is perhaps best illustrated past visiting a middle school deli. Groups of immature adolescents sitting together tend to exist similar on many characteristics, from wear to extracurricular activities to perceived popularity. Indeed, research has revealed that peers tend to be similar on a lengthy and yet growing listing of behaviors. Some of the most well documented include problematic behaviors such as violence, substance apply, drug use, high-hazard sexual behavior (e.m., unprotected sex), suicidal or self-injurious behaviors, and low. While much of the enquiry in this expanse has focused on negative outcomes related to peer influence, positive behaviors have too been documented, including academic performance, activities and interests, and exercise and fitness.

While similarities between peers in a cafeteria may be obvious to even casual observers, the processes responsible for these similarities and their relative importance accept been subject to considerable contend. Practice the shared characteristics seen in peers result from peers becoming more similar through their clan? Or are friendships formed on the basis of these shared characteristics? The first process thought to result in homophily is frequently known as socialization effects, reflecting influence by a peer. That is, individuals tend to become more than similar to their peers as a result of their association. Peer contagion is a term used normally in peer influence research to describe the spread of behavior among peers through socialization. The other process leading to homophily is referred to as choice furnishings. Option effects occur as individuals seek out peers that they perceive to be similar to themselves.

Figure 1 uses smoking beliefs to illustrate socialization and selection furnishings. The figure demonstrates the temporal relationship between friendship formation and shared behaviors of two pairs of friends. Both friendship pairs eventually share their smoking behavior, just each takes different paths to achieve this end result. Looking first at socialization, John and Steve are friends; perhaps they participate on a sports team together or have another friend in common. John is initially a nonsmoker and Steve is a smoker. After spending time with Steve, John tries smoking and somewhen becomes a smoker himself. John'due south path to smoking occurred through socialization, that is, through the influence of a peer. Selection effects are illustrated in Sam and Fred. Sam and Fred are both smokers who are initially not acquainted with each other. They meet each other, perhaps while smoking a cigarette outside of their schoolhouse. Their shared behavior may help them in creating a common bond and cause them to perceive the other equally similar to themselves. Sam and Fred become friends; selection effects were responsible for their shared smoking behavior. Researchers have attempted to determine the relative importance of pick and socialization in leading to similarities between peers. By examining the temporal relationship between the formation of friendships and characteristics of youth, enquiry has generally revealed that both socialization and selection appear to contribute significantly to homophily.

Figure 1. An illustration of selection and socialization effects of smoking behavior from Fourth dimension 1 to Time two.

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Social Networks in Later on Life

Benjamin Cornwell , Markus H. Schafer , in Handbook of Crumbling and the Social Sciences (Eighth Edition), 2016

Whole Networks

Earlier nosotros discussed structural features of networks – including cluster, bridging potential, homophily, and closeness centrality – many of which can only exist examined using whole network data (e.grand., Schafer, 2011, 2013b). A key task for network-oriented social gerontologists is to rails and examine these networks, and older adults' positions within them. Older adults form and maintain their social network ties within different contexts than others – for example, in retirement communities – and must do and then under different circumstances (e.k., in the wake of wellness refuse). As such, it is not only likely that the whole networks that are equanimous solely of older adults differ structurally from those that are commonly examined elsewhere in the social sciences, such as adolescent friendship networks, sexual contact and risk networks, and electronic networks. Because analyses of these other kinds of networks provide the ground for much of researchers' agreement of social networks themselves (e.g., see Wasserman & Faust, 1994), analysis of the unique networks formed past older adults may provide new insights into the structural backdrop of social networks. Contempo statistical advances – including exponential random graph models for the analysis of network structure, and Simulation Investigation for Empirical Network Analysis (SIENA) for the study of structural change – accept made this type of work far more than feasible than in the by. These tools overcome many of the problems that social network analysis introduces for traditional statistical methods (e.g., the nonindependence of network actors) and enable a host of novel hypothesis tests virtually triads, homophily, reciprocity, and other quintessential network phenomena. See Robins, Pattison, Kalish, and Lusher (2007) and Snijders, van de Bunt, and Steglich (2010) for nontechnical introductions.

More importantly, withal, analyses of whole networks will provide fresh insight into the roles and positions of older adults inside broader society. For reasons already discussed, older adults likely occupy unlike positions within the networks of their broader customs and which include young, middle-anile, and older adults akin. This, in plough, has important implications for the social influence of and opportunities available to older adults. These are bug that tin can only be explored with the aid of whole-network data.

Analyses of whole networks may also yield data about more peripheral members of older adults' networks. Social-gerontological research is heavily oriented toward social back up and strong ties. Rarer is explicit discussion about the full range of various resource located within and between seniors' weaker social ties. Some recent piece of work has sought to tap into the very weakest, transient social ties that exist in older people'south social worlds – including the individuals encountered in cafes, at bus stops, or in the grocery shop that acknowledge their presence or participate in small talk (Gardner, 2011). Individually, each of these "consequential strangers" (Fingerman, 2009) may contribute very few resources or directly offer much social support, merely, in aggregate, they can contribute to people'due south sense of belonging in their community (Gardner, 2011) as well as their sense of independence from dense family-merely networks (Cornwell, 2011).

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Serendipity in Futurity Digital Data Environments

A. McBirnie , ... S. Makri , in Accidental Information Discovery, 2016

Decision

The chorus of business organisation for serendipity has died downwardly in contempo years every bit technologies accept become more sophisticated, moving beyond support for goal-centered information seeking and the provisions of safeguards against homophily. Social media, for example, has provided possibly a more natural way for people to crash-land into information they otherwise would not take encountered. Furthermore, with the sheer amount and multifariousness of information bachelor at our fingertips and efforts to inject diversity and novelty into our digital experiences it is getting more difficult to debate that serendipity is in danger. The development of future digital information environments will exist motivated by not only extracting the "right" information from the depths of databases and Web pages, but the development of environments in which users become engaged, feel pleasure, and feel the enjoyment of surprise and learning. As we deepen our understanding of serendipity in the digital age, we will develop data environments—mobile, ubiquitous, and desktop technologies—that will allow us to experience serendipity in the context of work and everyday life. The claiming is to understand how to blueprint our information environments with the criteria of serendipity. And yes, more criteria for comparison volition likely arise forth the fashion (Rice, 1988).

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Exploring Director-Employee-Heterophily (MEH) in US-Owned and Managed Plants in Taiwan

Kirk Chang , ... Kuo-Tai Cheng , in The Cathay Business Model, 2017

7.5.1 Implication of the Research Findings

Our research does not seek to emphasize difference in social club to be pessimistic; the purpose is to explore the phenomenon of MEH and analyze its potential influence in the workplace. Moreover, our research has presented an opportunity to talk over the extent to which ethnic homophily might be observed, even when the potential for homophily is additionally compromised by condition. The final, and possibly most of import, goal is to use the findings to develop ways of working that may alleviate the impact of discord generated by a poor fit betwixt manager and employee values, both in the immediate and longer term.

Nosotros institute that, amongst Taiwanese employees, stress may ascend from divergent values in the two systems; employee values may be shared among the majority of the workforce but not past senior managers, and so increasing uncertainty and a lack of role clarity. In the immediate term we would propose that, equally a minimum, tailor-made consecration programmes should exist arranged for foreign managers and new employees. New managers tin can be inducted into the values of the workforce and can also be fabricated aware of the potentially negative furnishings of certain management styles. The employees would benefit from an induction into the arrangement which explained the differences, identifies progression routes inside the system and assigns mentors with long service (and possibly loftier levels of psychological acceptance).

Globalization brings the hope of significant wealth and prosperity to Taiwan, so we propose that a longer-term and further-reaching policy measure would see the Taiwanese education organisation include a focus on management styles rooted in non-Taiwanese cultures. This could be introduced as part of the wider curricular or through vocational workshops, but the purpose would exist to familiarize students with various strange management styles and fix them for today's culturally diverse workplaces. These workshops can also potentially aid students found a cerebral buffer—alleviating the impact of a foreign direction fashion on stress germination.

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Improving measurement of individual differences using social networks

Andrew Slaughter , Janie Yu , in Measuring and Modeling Persons and Situations, 2021

Networks and thespian attributes

Every bit can be seen, the traditional emphasis of social network analysis is on the analysis of social structure, not individual attributes. However, a substantial line of theoretical and empirical inquiry exists on the relationship of individual differences to social structure, focusing on things like homophily and correlations between actor's positions (especially centrality) and their characteristics.

Homophily is the idea that "birds of a feather flock together" (McPherson, Smith-Lovin, & Cook, 2001)—that individuals with similar personal characteristics are more probable to form certain kinds of relations, like friendship. The related, but broader, concept of assortative mixing tin can be used to describe the upshot of both similarity (i.e., homophily) and dissimilarity on the propensity for individuals to accept certain kinds of ties with one another. For example, a archetype example of homophily might be the tendency for schoolchildren to form friendships within the aforementioned grade level than across form levels.

Correlations between actor positions and their characteristics (sometimes referred to in the modeling literature past terms like "attribute-related popularity" or "attribute-related degree") are merely that—measures of the extent to which people with certain characteristics tend to have certain structural positions in the network. For instance, Klein, Lim, Saltz, and Mayer (2004) found that people who are older, more than educated, who are higher in conscientiousness, or who have college preferences for being active tend to exist more key in squad advice networks; in team friendship networks, centrality was predicted past gender (with women tending to be more key than men), neuroticism (college neuroticism predicting less centrality), and conjuration. However, near of this research has tended to focus on histrion centrality to the exclusion of other kinds of potential positional measures.

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Social Media and Wellness Behavior Change

L. Laranjo , in Participatory Health Through Social Media, 2016

6.iv.4 Network Interventions

Ii innovative studies involving the use of an SNS for behavior modify have likewise been published [108,109] using "network alteration" [123]. In those studies, the interventions were based on 2 aspects of offline social networks: the trend of people to associate with ones who resemble them—homophily [124]; and the tendency for people'south friends to be connected between them, through redundant ties—clustering [124,125]. The author hypothesized that people were more likely to adopt a behavior if they knew that someone similar to them, or some of their friends' friends, had done it before [126]. By modifying participants' networks in an SNS information technology was indeed demonstrated that homophily and clustering contribute to the social diffusion of "easy" behaviors (east.g., adoption of a nutrition diary). Nonetheless, it remains to be demonstrated that the same machinery applies to more complex health behaviors (east.g., dieting, exercising, smoking cessation) [127]. Indeed, it is known that the need for social reinforcement increases when the adoption of a given behavior is difficult, costly, or unfamiliar [126].

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Socialization

P. Noack , in Encyclopedia of Adolescence, 2011

Friends and Peers

Despite some limits to choice, adolescents take a sure liberty to decide with which historic period-mates they want to be friends and with which peer groups they desire to be affiliated. To the extent that parents are powerful agents of socialization, they also affect the nature of peer influence to which adolescents are exposed (given the of import role which homophily plays in peer affiliation). While empirical studies advise that at least 50% of peer similiarity tin can be traced to choice effects, there is ample evidence for socialization among peers to contribute to their similarity. In fact, peers tend to become more than similar in various characteristics in the course of their relationships. Given the workings of homophily, peer socialization can be causeless to at least partly strengthen the effects of parental influence.

It should be noted that many studies on peer influence take focused on beliefs non in line with social norms such equally adolescent deviance or substance employ. Peer influence, specially in the domain of norm-breaking behavior, can be partly attributed to stronger modeling furnishings apropos overt and highly salient behaviors. Moreover, as suggested earlier, peers are important as socialization agents, in detail when it comes to the realm of such issues as romantic relations, fashion, and youth civilization, which happen to accept a closer affinity to deviance, drinking, and drugs than the field of school and occupation. This type of influence seems to be peculiarly potent at mid-adolescence when susceptibility to peer pressure has been shown to reach its pinnacle. Finally, the suggested continuity between parental and peer socialization has been evident but if expert or adequate relationships prevail in the family. If experiences at dwelling are clearly negative (full of conflict or fail), adolescents are likely to turn to peers who stand for and foster norms opposite to the parental ones. Behaviors that break the expectations of the adult club can exist assumed to develop as a consequence.

Thus, friends and other peers with whom adolescents interact do contribute to their socialization. They more often than not practice not represent an antagonistic force to parental efforts at socialization. To some extent, they play a more influential role in certain domains of socialization. And under specific weather condition, peers could jeopardize adolescents' development according to normative expectations.

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Social Networks and the Education of Children and Youth

B. Schneider , ... L. Perez-Felkner , in International Encyclopedia of Teaching (Third Edition), 2010

Social Networks and Adolescents

Simply equally peer interactions play an important function in the development of young children, and then also are peer groups influential in adolescent identity development. Adolescence marks the time when young people seek to plant an independent identity from their families and seek acceptance and a sense of belonging through peer groups. As this occurs, similar shifts in the locus of peer relations occur, from dyadic or small-group relationships to peer groups or crowds (Brown and Lohr, 1987). The importance of oversupply amalgamation on identity evolution was studied early past Brown et al. (1986). Based on subjective responses of adolescents regarding the importance of crowd affiliation and why it was important, the researchers found that importance of crowd affiliation was negatively associated with age. Thus, younger adolescents tended to value crowd associations, while older adolescents relied on them less heavily, due to the force of established friendship networks. Furthermore, respondents' sense of identity was not related to the importance they placed on crowd affiliation, but was related to the centrality of their position in the peer network.

Crowd affiliations have also been demonstrated to predict future behaviors, educational attainment, and full general psychological adjustment in adolescents. Using widely recognized identity categories such as the jocks, brains, and the princesses, Barber et al. (2001) found that jocks and brains had the most positive adjustment in later years, primarily due to their involvement in schoolhouse-related activities in tenth grade. Time to come adolescent adjustment was also plant by Fuligni et al. (2001) to exist related to adolescent peer dependence. The more adolescents reported existence willing to sacrifice their talents and school performance for being in a particular group, the poorer was their bookish performance and overall adjustment. Taken together, these findings suggest that peer-group orientation plays an influential role in adolescent's identity development.

Due to its relationship to peer groups, identity development in adolescence has been a topic of item involvement to social network researchers. Collecting information on well-nigh 6000 high school students in California, McFarland and Pals (2005) explore how social networks affect the identity development of adolescents. They found that, while category memberships are highly influential in identity development, the network characteristics of prominence, homogeneity, and bridging lead to higher salience of identity imbalance, which in turn leads to an increased incidence of identity modify. Homogeneity, that is, beingness in a group with like demographic and other characteristics, exerted the greatest influence on identity change, revealing that, over time, social conformity inhibits identity instability and inconsistency.

The concept that friendships tend to class among people who perceive themselves as similar to ane another is termed homophily. These social affiliations tend to be aligned effectually traits on which people share values (value homophily) or social status (condition homophily). McPherson et al. (2001), in their review of homophily, fence that the nigh persistent traits which determine network homogeneity are race and race-like ethnicity.

The tendency toward network homophily and homogeneity is evidenced in several studies. Jackson et al. (2006), in their study of 1268 fifth graders' peer and teacher nominations of classroom social network relationships, asked students to rate who is nigh similar them (Like Most), most not similar them (Similar Least), a leader (Leader), and who is ambitious (Fights). They found that classroom racial limerick and the race of the teacher are directly related to the nominations of students into each of these groups. In classes that are bulk white, black students are significantly less likely to be nominated by both peers and teachers as a leader, more than likely to be categorized every bit aggressive, and less likely to exist nominated in friendship networks. Notwithstanding, they also demonstrate that, every bit blackness students are increasingly represented in the classroom, black children'south nominations to these categories also improve. Based on these findings, the researchers conclude that white children tend to be more than protected in bulk black environments – a phenomenon they aspect to their condition in the broader social community and to the history of discrimination and bias against blacks.

Examining the substantive integration of friendship networks in varied school contexts, Moody (2001b), using data from the Add Health Study, draws on contact theory to explore the human relationship between friendship segregation and school system and diversity. His findings suggest a curvilinear human relationship between heterogeneity and friendship segregation, finding that one time a particular threshold of race salience is reached in the school, integration peaks and so falls. Moody maintains that schools have the greatest issue on racial friendships when they tin structure racial mixing through the racial integration of extracurricular activities.

Virtual networks have emerged as sites for establishing socialties, although early studies suggested that ties created through the Internet were weak. Today, adolescents and young adults frequent sites such equally MySpace, Facebook, and online dating websites to form new relationships. The relationships formed within these groups may or may non be additionally outside of virtual space, but they are still real, to varying degrees. Youth participate in these networks for generally like purposes equally their traditional social groups: to forge new social relationships, find and interact with people who share their interests, and find people to date. Online relationships are now considered a part of the social world of most adolescents. These relationships are becoming increasingly significant to research on social networks not simply because they are more than prevalent, simply also because they refine and reshape understanding of the motivations underlying adolescent friendship formation equally well as the possible avenues in which those relationships can be forged. In other words, adolescents who may have traditionally been understood as social isolates, due to their difficulties forming interpersonal relationships with face-to-face friends, now have other outlets for forming relationships which need to be brought to conduct for understandings of peer networks in schools.

Previous inquiry into adolescent friendship formation has primarily been analyzed through social needs and social compensation perspectives. The social needs perspective attributes the motivations backside adolescent development to personal needs for intimacy, self-validation, and companionship, whereas the social bounty perspective focuses more than on the relationships that adolescents take with their parents to empathise motivations behind friendship formation. Enquiry supporting the social compensation approach is exemplified in the findings of Mesch and Talmud (2006). In a survey of a nationally representative sample of adolescent households in Israel (1000 in full), this study examined differences between adolescents who formed online friendships from those who did not, besides equally adolescents' perceived strength of social ties in terms of the nature of initial contact (either online or face-to-face). The study found that adolescents reporting conflicts with parents turned to online friendships rather than face-to-face up relationships, in office due to the anonymity of online communication. Further, this written report's findings challenge previous research of the strength of social ties in online relationships, asserting that it is not applied science which affects friendship germination, but rather the social embeddedness of the ties.

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